Durene

"Durene, or 1,2,4,5-tetramethylbenzene, is an organic compound with the formula C₆H₂(CH₃)₄. It is a colourless solid with a sweet odor. The compound is classified as an aromatic hydrocarbon. It is one of three isomers of tetramethylbenzene, the other two being prehnitene (1,2,3,4-tetramethylbenzene, m.p. -6.2 °C) and isodurene (1,2,3,5-tetramethylbenzene, m.p. -23.7 °C). Durene has a unusually high melting point, reflecting its high molecular symmetry."

"Durene is an electron-rich arene, exhibiting nucleophilicity comparable to that of phenol.^[1] It is readily halogenated on the ring for example. Nitration gives the dinitro derivative, a precursor to duroquinone. In industry, it is the precursor to pyromellitic dianhydride, which is used for manufacturing curing agents, adhesives and coating materials. It is used in the manufacture of some raw materials for engineering plastics (polyimides) and cross-linking agent for alkyd resins."

"With a simple proton NMR spectrum comprising two signals due to the 2 aromatic hydrogens (2H) and four methyl groups (12H), durene is used as aninternal standard."

Epoxide

"An epoxide is a cyclic ether with three ring atoms. This ring approximately defines an equilateral triangle, which makes it highly strained. The strained ring makes epoxides more reactive than other ethers. Simple epoxides are named from the parent compound ethylene oxide or oxirane, such as inchloromethyloxirane. As a functional group, epoxides feature the epoxy prefix, such as in the compound 1,2-epoxycycloheptane, which can also be calledcycloheptene epoxide, or simply cycloheptene oxide."

"A polymer formed by reacting epoxide units is called a polyepoxide or an epoxy. Epoxy resins are used as adhesives and structural materials. Polymerization of an epoxide gives a polyether, for example ethylene oxide polymerizes to give polyethylene glycol, also known as polyethylene oxide."

 

Erythritol

Erythritol ((2R,3S)-butane-1,2,3,4-tetraol) is a sugar alcohol (or polyol) that has been approved for use as a food additive in the United States^[1] and throughout much of the world. It was discovered in 1848 by British chemist John Stenhouse.^[2] It occurs naturally in some fruits and fermented foods.^[3] At the industrial level, it is produced from glucose by fermentation with a yeast, Moniliella pollinis.^[1] It is 60–70% as sweet as table sugar yet it is almost noncaloric, does not affect blood sugar, does not cause tooth decay, and is partially absorbed by the body, excreted in urine and feces. It is less likely to cause gastric side effects than other sugar alcohols due to its unique digestion pathway. Under U.S. Food and Drug Administration(FDA) labeling requirements, it has a caloric value of 0.2 kilocalories per gram (95% less than sugar and other carbohydrates), though nutritional labeling varies from country to country. Some countries, such as Japan and the United States, label it as zero-calorie, while European Unionregulations currently label it and all other sugar alcohols at 2.4 kcal/g."

"Erythritol has a strong cooling effect (endothermic, or positive heat of solution)^[9] when it dissolves in water, which is often combined with the cooling effect of mint flavors, but proves distracting with more subtle flavors and textures. The cooling effect is only present when erythritol is not already dissolved in water, a situation that might be experienced in an erythritol-sweetened frosting, chocolate bar, chewing gum, or hard candy. When combined with solid fats, such as coconut oil, cocoa butter, or cow's butter, the cooling effect tends to accentuate the waxy characteristics of the fat in a generally undesirable manner.^{[citation needed]} This is particularly pronounced in chocolate bars made with erythritol.^{[citation needed]} The cooling effect of erythritol is very similar to that of xylitol and among the strongest cooling effects of all sugar alcohols."

Chloramphenicol

"Chloramphenicol (INN) is a bacteriostatic antimicrobial that became available in 1949. It is considered a prototypical broad-spectrum antibiotic, alongside the tetracyclines, and as it is both cheap and easy to manufacture it is frequently an antibiotic of choice in the Third World."

"Chloramphenicol, also known as chlornitromycin, is effective against a wide variety of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including mostanaerobic organisms. Due to resistance and safety concerns, it is no longer a first-line agent for any infection in developed nations, although it is sometimes used topically for eye infections. Nevertheless, the global problem of advancing bacterial resistance to newer drugs has led to renewed interest in its use.^[1] In low-income countries, chloramphenicol is still widely used because it is inexpensive and readily available."

"The most serious adverse effect associated with chloramphenicol treatment is bone marrow toxicity, which may occur in two distinct forms: bone marrow suppression, which is a direct toxic effect of the drug and is usually reversible, and aplastic anemia, which is idiosyncratic (rare, unpredictable, and unrelated to dose) and in general fatal."

α-Linolenic acid

α-Linolenic acid is an organic compound found in many common vegetable oils. In terms of its structure, it is named all-cis-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid.^[2] In physiological literature, it is given the name 18:3 (n−3).

α-Linolenic acid is a carboxylic acid with an 18-carbon chain and three cis double bonds. The first double bond is located at the third carbon from the methyl end of the fatty acid chain, known as the n end. Thus, α-linolenic acid is a polyunsaturated n−3 (omega-3) fatty acid. It is an isomer of gamma-linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated n−6 (omega-6) fatty acid.

Alpha-linolenic acid is relatively more susceptible to oxidation and will become rancid more quickly than many other oils. Oxidative instability of α-linolenic acid is one reason why producers choose to partially hydrogenate oils containing α-linolenic acid, such as soybean oil.^[25] Soybeans are the largest source of edible oils in the U.S., and 40% of soy oil production is partially hydrogenated.

Tetramethylsilane

"Tetramethylsilane (abbreviated as TMS) is the chemical compound with the formula Si(CH₃)₄. It is the simplest tetraorganosilane. Like all silanes, the TMS framework is tetrahedral. TMS is a building block in organometallic chemistry but also finds use in diverse niche applications."

"TMS is a by-product of the production of methyl chlorosilanes, SiCl_x(CH₃)_4−x, via the direct process of reacting methyl chloride with silicon. The more useful products of this reaction are those for x = 1, 2, and 3."

"TMS undergoes deprotonation upon treatment with butyllithium to give (H₃C)₃SiCH₂Li. The latter, trimethylsilylmethyl lithium, is a relatively common alkylating agent."

Tetramethylsilane is the accepted internal standard for calibrating chemical shift for ¹H, ¹³C and ²⁹Si NMR spectroscopy in organic solvents (where TMS is soluble). In water, where it is not soluble, sodium salts of DSS, 2,2-dimethyl-2-silapentane-5-sulfonate, are used instead. Because of its high volatility, TMS can easily be evaporated, which is convenient for recovery of samples analyzed by NMR spectroscopy.

Dichlorine Heptoxide

"Dichlorine heptoxide is the chemical compound with the formula Cl₂O₇. This chlorine oxide is the anhydride of perchloric acid. It is produced by the careful distillation of perchloric acid in the presence of the dehydrating agent phosphorus pentoxide:

2 HClO₄ + P₄O₁₀ → Cl₂O₇ + H₂P₄O₁₁

The chlorine(VII) oxide can be distilled off from the mixture."

"It may also be formed by illumination on mixtures of chlorine and ozone.^[2] It slowly hydrolyzes back to perchloric acid, which is also hazardous whenanhydrous."

"Cl₂O₇ is an endothermic molecule, which means that it is intrinsically unstable.

2 Cl₂O₇ → 2 Cl₂ + 7 O₂ (ΔH = -135 kJ/mol)

Cl₂O₇ is bent with Cl-O-Cl angle of 118.6° giving the molecule C₂ symmetry. The terminal Cl-O distances are 1.709 Å and the Cl=O distances are 1.405 Å.^[1] In this compound, chlorine exists in its highest formal oxidation state of +7, although the bonding in this molecule is significantly covalent."

Lactones

"In chemistry, a lactone is a cyclic ester^[1] which can be seen as

 the condensation product of an alcohol group -OH and a carboxylic acid group -COOH in the same molecule. It is characterized by a closed ring consisting of two or more carbon atoms and a single oxygen atom, with a ketone group =O in one of the carbons adjacent to the other oxygen."

"Lactones are usually named according to the precursor acid molecule (aceto = 2 carbons, propio = 3, butyro = 4, valero = 5, capro = 6, etc.), with a -lactone suffix and a Greek letter prefix that specifies the number of carbons in the heterocyle — that is, the distance between the relevant -OH and the -COOH groups along said backbone. The first carbon atom after the carbon in the -COOH group on the parent compound is labelled α, the second will be labeled β, and so forth. Therefore, the prefixes also indicate the size of the lactone ring: α-lactone = 3-membered ring, β-lactone = 4-membered, γ-lactone = 5-membered, etc."

Caprylic Acid

"Caprylic acid is the common name for the eight-carbon saturated fatty acid known by the systematic name octanoic acid. It is found naturally in themilk of various mammals, and it is a minor constituent of coconut oil and palm kernel oil.^[3] It is an oily liquid that is minimally soluble in water with a slightly unpleasant rancid-like smell and taste."

"Two other acids are named after goats: caproic (C6) and capric (C10). Along with caprylic acid these total 15% in goat milk fat."

"Caprylic acid is also used in the treatment of some bacterial infections. Due to its relatively short chain length it has no difficulty in penetrating fatty cell wall membranes, hence its effectiveness in combating certain lipid-coated bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and various species ofStreptococcus."

Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid, GABA

"γ-Aminobutyric acid ( /ˈɡæmə əˈmiːnoʊbjuːˈtɪrɨk ˈæsɨd/ gam-ə ə-mee-noh-bew-tirr-ik; or GABA /ˈɡæbə/) is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in themammalian central nervous system. It plays a role in regulating neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system. In humans, GABA is also directly responsible for the regulation of muscle tone."

"Although chemically it is an amino acid, GABA is rarely referred to as such in the scientific or medical communities, because the term "amino acid," used without a qualifier, conventionally refers to the alpha amino acids, which GABA is not, nor is it ever incorporated into a protein."

"In spastic diplegia in humans, GABA absorption becomes impaired by nerves damaged from the condition's upper motor neuron lesion, which leads tohypertonia of the muscles signaled by those nerves that can no longer absorb GABA."