Acetylcholine

"The chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a neurotransmitter in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS) in many organisms including humans. Acetylcholine is one of many neurotransmitters in the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the only neurotransmitter used in the motor division of the somatic nervous system (sensory neurons use glutamate and various peptides at their synapses). Acetylcholine is also the principal neurotransmitter in all autonomic ganglia."

"Acetylcholine slows the heart rate when functioning as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. However, acetylcholine also behaves as an excitatory neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junctions."

Coenzyme Q₁₀

Coenzyme Q₁₀, also known as ubiquinone, ubidecarenone, coenzyme Q, and abbreviated at times to CoQ₁₀ /ˌkoʊ ˌkjuː ˈtɛn/, CoQ, Q10, or Q, is a 1,4-benzoquinone, where Q refers to the quinone chemical group, and 10 refers to the number of isoprenyl chemical subunits in its tail.

This oil-soluble, vitamin-like substance is present in most eukaryotic cells, primarily in the mitochondria. It is a component of the electron transport chain and participates in aerobic cellular respiration, generating energy in the form of ATP. Ninety-five percent of the human body’s energy is generated this way.^[1][2] Therefore, those organs with the highest energy requirements—such as the heart, liver and kidney —have the highest CoQ₁₀ concentrations.^[3][4][5] There are three redox states of coenzyme Q10: fully oxidized (ubiquinone), semiquinone (ubisemiquinone), and fully reduced (ubiquinol). The capacity of this molecule to exist in a completely oxidized form and a completely reduced form enables it to perform its functions in electron transport chain and as an antioxidant respectively.

Coenzyme Q₁₀ was first discovered by Professor Fredrick L. Crane and colleagues at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Enzyme Institute in 1957.^[6][7] In 1958, its chemical structure was reported by Dr. Karl Folkers and coworkers at Merck; in 1968, Folkers became a Professor in the Chemistry Department at the University of Texas at Austin.^[7][8] In 1961 Peter Mitchel proposed the electron transport chain (which includes the vital protonmotive role of CoQ10) and he received a Nobel prize for the same in 1978. In 1972, Gian Paolo Littarru and Karl Folkers separately demonstrated a deficiency of CoQ10 in human heart disease. The 1980s witnessed a steep rise in the number of clinical trials due to the availability of large quantities of pure CoQ10 and methods to measure plasma and blood CoQ10 concentrations. The antioxidant role of the molecule as a free radical scavenger was widely studied by Lars Ernster. Numerous scientists around the globe started studies on this molecule since then in relation to various diseases including cardiovascular diseases and cancer.

Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)

PEG, PEO, or POE refers to an oligomer or polymer of ethylene oxide. The three names are chemically synonymous, but historically PEG has tended to refer to oligomers and polymers with a molecular mass below 20,000 g/mol, PEO to polymers with a molecular mass above 20,000 g/mol, and POE to a polymer of any molecular mass.^[2] PEG and PEO are liquids or low-melting solids, depending on their molecular weights. PEGs are prepared by polymerization of ethylene oxide and are commercially available over a wide range of molecular weights from 300 g/mol to 10,000,000 g/mol. While PEG and PEO with different molecular weights find use in different applications and have different physical properties (e.g., viscosity) due to chain length effects, their chemical properties are nearly identical. Different forms of PEG are also available dependent on the initiator used for the polymerization process, the most common of which is a monofunctional methyl ether PEG (methoxypoly(ethylene glycol)), abbreviated mPEG. Lower-molecular-weight PEGs are also available as purer oligomers, referred to as monodisperse, uniform or discrete. Very high purity PEG has recently been shown to be crystalline, allowing determination of a xray crystal structure.^[3] Since purification and separation of pure oligomers is difficult, the price for this type of quality is often 10-1000 fold that of polydisperse PEG. PEGs are also available with different geometries. Branched PEGs have three to ten PEG chains emanating from a central core group. Star PEGs have 10–100 PEG chains emanating from a central core group. Comb PEGs have multiple PEG chains normally grafted to a polymer backbone."

Catalase

"Catalase is a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms that are exposed to oxygen, where it catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.^[1] Catalase has one of the highest turnover numbers of all enzymes; one catalase molecule can convert 40 million molecules of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen each second."

"Catalase is a tetramer of four polypeptide chains, each over 500 amino acids long.^[3] It contains four porphyrin heme (iron) groups that allow the enzyme to react with the hydrogen peroxide. The optimum pH for human catalase is approximately 7,^[4] and has a fairly broad maximum (the rate of reaction does not change appreciably at pHs between 6.8 and 7.5).^[5] The pH optimum for other catalases varies between 4 and 11 depending on the species.^[6] The optimum temperature also varies by species."

Picric Acid

"Picric acid is the chemical compound formally called 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP). This yellow crystalline solid is one of the most acidic phenols. Like other highly nitrated compounds such as TNT, picric acid is an explosive. Its name comes from Greek πικρος (pik' ros), meaning "bitter", reflecting the bitter taste of picric acid."

"Picric acid was probably first mentioned in the alchemical writings of Johann Rudolf Glauber in 1742. Initially, it was made by nitrating substances such as animal horn, silk, indigo, and natural resin, the synthesis from indigo first being performed by Peter Woulfe in 1779. Its synthesis from phenol, and the correct determination of its formula, were successfully accomplished in 1841. Not until 1830 did chemists think to use picric acid as an explosive. Before then, chemists assumed that only the salts of picric acid were explosive, not the acid itself. In 1873 Hermann Sprengel proved it could be detonated and by 1894 the Russian workers had worked out a method of manufacture for artillery shells. Soon after, most military powers used picric acid as their primary high explosive material. However, shells filled with picric acid become highly unstable as the compound corrodes bomb casings to form metal picrates which are more sensitive than the parent phenol. The sensitivity of picric acid was demonstrated in the Halifax Explosion. Picric acid was used in the Second Boer War^[1] and World War I,^[2] but the 20th century saw picric acid largely replaced by TNT and RDX. Picric acid is also used in the analytical chemistry of metals, ores, and minerals."

Cortisol

"Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is a steroid hormone, or glucocorticoid, produced by the adrenal gland.^[1] It is released in response to stress and a low level of blood glucocorticoids. Its primary functions are to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis; suppress the immune system; and aid in fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism.^[2] It also decreases bone formation. During pregnancy, increased production of cortisol between weeks 30-32 initiates production of fetal lung surfactant to promote maturation of the lungs. Various synthetic forms of cortisol are used to treat a variety of diseases."

"Cortisol is produced by the adrenal gland in the zona fasciculata, the second of three layers comprising the outer adrenal cortex. This release is controlled by the hypothalamus, a part of the brain. The secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) by the hypothalamus triggers anterior pituitary secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH is carried by the blood to the adrenal cortex, where it triggers glucocorticoid secretion."

Oleic Acid

"Oleic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid found in various animal and vegetable fats. It has the formula CH₃(CH₂)₇CH=CH(CH₂)₇COOH.^[2] It is an odorless, colourless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The trans isomer of oleic acid is called elaidic acid (hence the name elaidinization for a reaction that switches cis isomers to trans isomers). The term "oleic" means related to, or derived from, oil or olive."

"Triglyceride esters of oleic acid compose the majority of olive oil, although there may be less than 2.0% as free acid in the virgin olive oil, with higher concentrations making the olive oil inedible. It also makes up 59-75% of pecan oil,^[3] 36-67% of peanut oil,^[4] 15-20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, and sesame oil,^[2] and 14% of poppyseed oil.^[5] It is abundantly present in many animal fats, constituting 37 to 56% of chicken and turkey fat,^[6] and 44 to 47% of lard, etc."

"Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue."

Benzo[a]pyrene

"Benzo[a]pyrene, C₂₀H₁₂, is a five-ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon whose metabolites are mutagenic and highly carcinogenic. Benzo[a]pyrene is listed as a Group 1 carcinogen by the IARC. It belongs to a class of polycyclic aromatic compounds known as benzopyrenes, which consist of a benzene ring fused to a pyrene molecule. Benzo[a]pyrene is a product of incomplete combustion at temperatures between 300 and 600 °C (572 and 1,112 °F). Benzo[a]pyrene was determined in 1933 to be the component of coal tar responsible for the first recognized occupation-associated cancers, the sooty warts (cancers of the scrotum) suffered by chimney sweeps in 18th century England. In the 19th century, high incidences of skin cancers were noted among fuel industry workers. By the early 20th century, the toxicity of benzo[a]pyrene was demonstrated when malignant skin tumors were produced in laboratory animals by repeatedly painting them with coal tar. When the body's metabolism attempts to remove Benzo[a]pyrene by converting into a water soluble compound for easier excretion. The resulting diol epoxide, however, reacts with and binds to DNA resulting in mutations which can lead to cancer."

Acetominophen

"Paracetamol INN (/ˌpærəˈsiːtəmɒl/ or /ˌpærəˈsɛtəmɒl/), or acetaminophen USAN ⁱ/əˌsiːtəˈmɪnəfɨn/, is a widely used over-the-counter analgesic (pain reliever) and antipyretic (fever reducer). It is commonly used for the relief of headaches and other minor aches and pains and is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu remedies. In combination with opioid analgesics, paracetamol can also be used in the management of more severe pain such as post surgical pain and providing palliative care in advanced cancer patients.^[4] The onset of analgesia is approximately 11 minutes after oral administration of paracetamol,^[5] and its half-life is 1–4 hours."

"While generally safe for use at recommended doses (1,000 mg per single dose and up to 3,000 mg per day for adults, up to 2,000 mg per day if drinking alcohol),^[6] acute overdoses of paracetamol can cause potentially fatal liver damage and, in rare individuals, a normal dose can do the same; the risk is heightened by alcohol consumption. Paracetamol toxicity is the foremost cause of acute liver failure in the Western world, and accounts for most drug overdoses in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand."

Decalin

"Decalin (decahydronaphthalene, also known as bicyclo[4.4.0]decane)^[1], a bicyclic organic compound, is an industrial solvent. A colorless liquid with an aromatic odor, it is used as a solvent for many resins or fuel additive.^[2] It is the saturated analog of naphthalene and can be prepared from it by hydrogenation in a fused state in the presence of a catalyst. Decahydronaphthalene easily forms explosive^[3] organic peroxides upon storage in the presence of air."