Polystyrene

"Polystyrene also known as Thermocole, abbreviated following ISO Standard PS, is an aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon that is manufactured from petroleum by the chemical industry. Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics, the scale being several billion kilograms per year."

"Polystyrene can either be a thermoset or a thermoplastic. A thermoplastic polystyrene is in a solid (glassy) state at room temperature, but flows if heated above itsglass transition temperature of about 100 °C (for molding or extrusion), and becomes solid again when cooled. Pure solid polystyrene is a colorless, hard plastic with limited flexibility. It can be cast into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene can be transparent or can be made to take on various colors."

"Solid polystyrene is used, for example, in disposable cutlery, plastic models, CD and DVD cases, and smoke detector housings. Products made from foamed polystyrene are nearly ubiquitous, for example packing materials, insulation, and foam drink cups."

Methyl Anthranilate

"Methyl anthranilate, also known as MA, methyl 2-aminobenzoate or carbomethoxyaniline, is an ester of anthranilic acid. Its chemical formula is C₈H₉NO₂."

"It is a clear to pale yellow liquid with melting point 24 °C and boiling point 256 °C. It shows a light blue fluorescence. It is very slightly soluble in water, and soluble in ethanol and propylene glycol. It is insoluble in paraffin oil and glycerol. It is combustible, with flash point at 104 °C. At full concentration, it has fruity grape smell; at 25 ppm it has sweet fruity concord grape like smell with a musty and berry nuance."

"Methyl anthranilate naturally occurs in the Concord grapes and other Vitis labrusca grapes or hybrids thereof, and in bergamot, black locust, champaca,gardenia, jasmine, lemon, mandarin, neroli, oranges, rue oil, strawberry, tuberose, wisteria, galangal and ylang ylang. It is also a primary component of the essential apple flavor, along with ethyl acetate and ethyl butyrate^[2] . It is used for flavoring of candy, soft drinks (e.g. grape soda), gums, and drugs. It is also secreted by the musk glands of foxes and dogs, and lends a "sickly sweetness" to the smell of rotting flesh."

Benzyl Alcohol

"Benzyl alcohol is an organic compound with the formula C₆H₅CH₂OH. The benzyl group is often abbreviated "Bn" (not to be confused with "Bz" which is used for benzoyl), thus benzyl alcohol is denoted as BnOH. Benzyl alcohol is a colorless liquid with a mild pleasant aromatic odor. It is a useful solvent due to its polarity, low toxicity, and low vapor pressure. Benzyl alcohol is partially soluble in water (4 g/100 mL) and completely miscible in alcohols and diethyl ether."

"Benzyl alcohol is produced naturally by many plants and is commonly found in fruits and teas. It is also found in a variety of essential oils including jasmine, hyacinth, and ylang-ylang."

"Benzyl alcohol is used as a general solvent for inks, paints, lacquers, and epoxy resin coatings.^[5] It is also a precursor to a variety of esters, used in thesoap, perfume, and flavor industries. It is often added to intravenous medication solutions as a preservative due to its bacteriostatic and antipruritic properties. It is also used as a photographic developer."

Dimethoxyethane

"Dimethoxyethane, also known as glyme, monoglyme, dimethyl glycol, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, dimethyl cellosolve, and DME, is a clear, colorless, aprotic, and liquid ether that is used as a solvent. Dimethoxyethane is miscible with water."

"Dimethoxyethane is often used as a higher boiling alternative to diethyl ether and THF. Dimethoxyethane forms chelate complexes with cations and acts as a bidentate ligand. It is therefore often used in organometallic chemistry like Grignard reactions, hydride reductions, and palladium-catalyzed reactionslike Suzuki reactions and Stille coupling. Dimethoxyethane is also a good solvent for oligo- and polysaccharides."

"The lowest energy form of dimethoxyethane in the gas phase is the gauche, rather than the anti conformer."

Glyoxal

"Glyoxal is an organic compound with the formula OCHCHO. This yellow colored liquid is the smallest dialdehyde (two aldehyde groups). Its tautomer acetylenediol is unstable."

"Glyoxal may be synthesized in the laboratory by oxidation of acetaldehyde with selenious acid.^[1] The preparation of anhydrous glyoxal entails heating solid glyoxal hydrate(s) with phosphorus pentoxide and condensing the vapors in a cold trap.^[2] The experimentally determined Henry's law constants of glyoxal is: K_H = 4.19 × 10⁵ × exp[(62.2 × 10³/R) × (1/T − 1/298)]"

Leupeptin

"Leupeptin, also known as N-acetyl-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-argininal, is a naturally occurring protease inhibitor that can inhibit cysteine, serine and threonine peptidases."

"It is often used during in vitro experiments when a specific enzymatic reaction is being studied. When cells are lysed for these studies, proteases, many of which are contained within lysosomes, are released. These proteases, if freely present in the lysate, would destroy any products from the reaction being studied, and make the experiment uninterpretable. For example, leupeptin could be used in a calpain extraction to keep calpain from being hydrolyzed by specific proteases. The suggested concentration is 1-10 µM (0.5-5 µg/ml)."

"Leupeptin is an organic compound produced by actinomycetes, which inhibits serine, cysteine and threonine proteases. Leupeptin inhibits serine proteinases (trypsin (K_i=3.5 nM), plasmin (K_i= 3.4 nM), porcine kallikrein), and cysteine proteinases (papain, cathepsin B (K_i = 4.1 nM), endoproteinase Lys-C). It does not inhibit α-chymotrypsin or thrombin. Leupeptin is a competitive transition state inhibitor and its inhibition may be relieved by an excess of substrate."

Guanine

"Guanine (G, Gua) is one of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine (uracil in RNA). In DNA, guanine is paired with cytosine. With the formula C₅H₅N₅O, guanine is a derivative of purine, consisting of a fused pyrimidine-imidazole ring system with conjugated double bonds. Being unsaturated, the bicyclic molecule is planar. The guanine nucleoside is called guanosine."

"Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA, and uracil only in RNA. Guanine has two tautomeric forms, the major keto form (see figures) and rare enol form. It binds to cytosine through three hydrogen bonds. In cytosine, the amino group acts as the hydrogen donor and the C-2 carbonyl and the N-3 amine as the hydrogen-bond acceptors. Guanine has a group at C-6 that acts as the hydrogen acceptor, while the group at N-1 and the amino group at C-2 act as the hydrogen donors."

Cholinesterase

"In biochemistry, cholinesterase is a family of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into choline and acetic acid, a reaction necessary to allow a cholinergic neuron to return to its resting state after activation."

"There are two types:

• Acetylcholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.7) (AChE), also known as RBC cholinesterase, erythrocyte cholinesterase, or (most formally) acetylcholine acetylhydrolase, found primarily in the blood and neural synapses. Acetylcholinesterase exists in multiple molecular forms. In the mammalian brain the majority of AChE occurs as a tetrameric, G4 form (10) with much smaller amounts of a monomeric G1 (4S) form. ^[1]

• Pseudocholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.8) (BChE or BuChE), also known as plasma cholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, or (most formally) acylcholine acylhydrolase, found primarily in the liver."

"The difference between the two types of cholinesterase has to do with their respective preferences for substrates: the former hydrolyses acetylcholine more quickly; the latter hydrolyses butyrylcholine more quickly."

Cortisone

"Cortisone (17-hydroxy-11-dehydrocorticosterone) is a steroid hormone. It is one of the main hormones released by the adrenal gland in response to stress. In chemical structure, it is a corticosteroid closely related to corticosterone. It is used to treat a variety of ailments and can be administered intravenously, orally, intraarticularly, or transcutaneously. Cortisone suppresses the immune system, thus reducing inflammation and attendant pain and swelling at the site of the injury. Risks exist, in particular in the long-term use of cortisone."

"Cortisone was first identified by the American chemist Edward Calvin Kendall while a researcher at the Mayo Clinic.^[3] He was awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine along with Philip S. Hench and Tadeus Reichstein for the discovery of adrenal cortex hormones, their structures, and their functions. Cortisone was first produced commercially by Merck & Co. On September 30, 1949, Percy Julian announced an improvement in the process of producing cortisone from bile acids.^{[chronology citation needed]} This eliminated the need to use osmium tetroxide, a rare, expensive, and dangerous chemical. Unknown at the time of the 1960 Presidential election, President John F. Kennedy took Cortisone supplements to counter the adrenal deficiency symptoms of Addison's Disease, which he denied having."

Lipoprotein

"A lipoprotein is a biochemical assembly that contains both proteins and lipids, bound to the proteins, which allow fats to move through the water outside cells and inside cells. The proteins serve to emulsify the lipid (otherwise called fat) molecules. Many enzymes, transporters, structural proteins, antigens, adhesins, and toxins are lipoproteins. Examples include the high-density (HDL) and low-density (LDL) lipoproteins, which enable fats to be carried in the blood stream, thetransmembrane proteins of the mitochondrion and the chloroplast, and bacterial lipoproteins."

"Lipoproteins may be classified as follows, listed from larger and less dense to smaller and denser. Lipoproteins are larger and less dense when the fat to protein ratio is increased. They are classified on the basis of electrophoresis and ultracentrifugation.

• Chylomicrons carry triglycerides (fat) from the intestines to the liver, to skeletal muscle, and to adipose tissue.
• Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) carry (newly synthesised) triglycerides from the liver to adipose tissue.
• Intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) are intermediate between VLDL and LDL. They are not usually detectable in the blood.
• Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) carry cholesterol from the liver to cells of the body. LDLs are sometimes referred to as the "bad cholesterol" lipoprotein.
• High-density lipoproteins (HDL) collect cholesterol from the body's tissues, and bring it back to the liver. HDLs are sometimes referred to as the "good cholesterol" lipoprotein."