Fluorene

"Fluorene, or 9H-fluorene, is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. It forms white crystals that exhibit a characteristic, aromatic odor similar to that ofnaphthalene. It is combustible. It has a violet fluorescence, hence its name. For commercial purposes it is obtained from coal tar. It is insoluble in water and soluble in benzene and ether."

"The C9-H sites of the fluorene ring are weakly acidic (pK_a = 22.6 in DMSO.^[5]) Deprotonation gives the stable fluorenyl "anion", nominally C₁₃H₉⁻, which isaromatic and has an intense orange colour. The anion is a nucleophile, and most electrophiles react with it by adding to the 9-position. The purification of fluorene exploits its acidity and the low solubility of its sodium derivative in hydrocarbon solvents."

"Both protons can be removed from C9. For example, 9,9-fluorenyldipotassium can be obtained by treating fluorene with potassium metal in boiling dioxane."

Aflatoxin

"Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a fungus, the most notable ones being Aspergillus flavusand Aspergillus parasiticus. Their name is derived from the early work that discovered Aspergillus Flavus toxins. Aflatoxins are toxic and among the mostcarcinogenic substances known.^[1] After entering the body, aflatoxins may be metabolized by the liver to a reactive epoxide intermediate or hydroxylated to become the less harmful aflatoxin M₁."

"High-level aflatoxin exposure produces an acute hepatic necrosis, resulting later in cirrhosis, and/or carcinoma of the liver. Acute hepatic failure is made manifest by hemorrhage, edema, alteration in digestion, changes to the absorption and/or metabolism of nutrients, and mental changes and/or coma."

"No animal species is immune to the acute toxic effects of aflatoxins including humans; however, adult humans have a high tolerance for aflatoxin exposure and rarely succumb to acute aflatoxicosis."

Phylloquinone

"Phylloquinone is a polycyclic aromatic ketone, based on 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, with a 3-phytyl substituent."

"It is a fat-soluble vitamin that is stable to air and moisture but decomposes in sunlight. It is found naturally in a wide variety of green plants."

"It is often called vitamin K₁^[1], phytomenadione or phytonadione. Sometimes a distinction is made with phylloquinone considered natural and phytonadione considered synthetic."

"A stereoisomer of phylloquinone is called vitamin k₁ (note the difference in capitalization)."

"Phylloquinone is an electron acceptor during photosynthesis, forming part of the electron transport chain of Photosystem I."

"Its best-known function in animals is as a cofactor in the formation of coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X by the liver. It is also required for the formation of anticoagulant factors protein C and S. It is commonly used to treat warfarin toxicity, and as an antidote for coumatetralyl."

"Vitamin K is also required for bone protein formation."

Sulfonamides

"Sulfonamide or sulphonamide is the basis of several groups of drugs. The original antibacterial sulfonamides (sometimes called sulfa drugs or sulpha drugs) are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide group. Some sulfonamides are also devoid of antibacterial activity, e.g., the anticonvulsant sultiame. The sulfonylureas and thiazide diuretics are newer drug groups based on the antibacterial sulfonamides."

"Sulfa allergies are common,^[2] hence medications containing sulfonamides are prescribed carefully. It is important to make a distinction between sulfa drugs and other sulfur-containing drugs and additives, such as sulfates and sulfites, which are chemically unrelated to the sulfonamide group, and do not cause the same hypersensitivity reactions seen in the sulfonamides."

Pantothenic Acid

"Pantothenic acid, also called pantothenate or vitamin B₅ (a B vitamin), is a water-soluble vitamin. For many animals, pantothenic acid is an essential nutrient. Animals require pantothenic acid to synthesize coenzyme-A (CoA), as well as to synthesize and metabolize proteins, carbohydrates, and fats."

"Pantothenic acid is the amide between pantoate and beta-alanine. Its name derives from the Greek pantothen (πάντοθεν) meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole-grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, royal jelly, avocado, and yogurt.^[1] It is commonly found as its alcohol analog, the provitamin panthenol, and as calcium pantothenate. Pantothenic acid is an ingredient in some hair and skin care products."

"Pantothenic acid is used in the synthesis of coenzyme A (CoA). Coenzyme A may act as an acyl group carrier to form acetyl-CoA and other related compounds; this is a way to transport carbon atoms within the cell.^[5] CoA is important in energy metabolism for pyruvate to enter the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) as acetyl-CoA, and for α-ketoglutarate to be transformed to succinyl-CoA in the cycle.^[6] CoA is also important in the biosynthesis of many important compounds such as fatty acids, cholesterol, and acetylcholine.^[6] CoA is incidentally also required in the formation of ACP,^[7] which is also required for fatty acid synthesis in addition to CoA."

alpha-Tocopherol

Tocopherols (or TCP) are a class of chemical compounds of which many have vitamin E activity. It is a series of organic compounds consisting of various methylated phenols. Because the vitamin activity was first identified in 1936 from a dietary fertility factor in rats, it was given the name "tocopherol" from the Greek words “τόκος” [birth], and “φέρειν”, [to bear or carry] meaning in sum "to carry a pregnancy," with the ending "-ol" signifying its status as a chemical alcohol.

alpha-Tocopherol is the main source found in supplements and in the European diet, where the main dietary sources are olive and sunflower oils,^[1] while gamma-tocopherol is the most common form in the American diet due to a higher intake of soybean and corn oil.^[1],^[2]

Tocotrienols, which are related compounds, also have vitamin E activity. All of these various derivatives with vitamin activity may correctly be referred to as "vitamin E." Tocopherols and tocotrienols are fat-soluble antioxidants but also seem to have many other functions in the body.

Vitamin E exists in eight different forms, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. All feature a chromanol ring, with a hydroxyl group that can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals and ahydrophobic side chain which allows for penetration into biological membranes.

Ergosterol

"Ergosterol (ergosta-5,7,22-trien-3β-ol) is a sterol found in fungi, and named for ergot, a common name for the members of the fungal genus Clavicepsfrom which ergosterol was first isolated. Ergosterol does not occur in plant or animal cells. It is a component of yeast and fungal cell membranes, serving the same function that cholesterol serves in animal cells."

"Ergosterol is a biological precursor (a provitamin) to vitamin D₂. It is turned into viosterol by ultraviolet light, and is then converted into ergocalciferol, a form of vitamin D also known as D₂ or D2.^[1] For this reason, when yeast (such as brewer's yeast) and fungi (such as mushrooms), are exposed to ultraviolet light, significant amounts of vitamin D₂ are produced."

"Ergosterol powder is an irritant to skin, eyes, and the respiratory tract. Ingestion of large amounts can cause hypercalcemia, which (if prolonged) can lead to calcium salt deposits in the soft tissues and, in particular, the kidneys."

Ascorbic Acid

"Ascorbic acid is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It dissolves well in water to give mildly acidic solutions. Ascorbic acid is one form ("vitamer") of vitamin C. The name is derived from a- (meaning "no") andscorbutus (scurvy), the disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C. Because it is derived from glucose, many animals are able to produce it, but humans require it as part of their nutrition. Other vertebrates lacking the ability to produce ascorbic acid include other primates, guinea pigs, teleost fishes, bats, and birds, all of which require it as a dietary micronutrient (that is, a vitamin)."

"Ascorbic acid resembles the sugar from which it is derived, being a ring containing many oxygen-containing functional groups. The molecule exists in equilibrium with two ketone tautomers, which are less stable than the enol form. In solutions, these forms of ascorbic acid rapidly interconvert."

"As a mild reducing agent, ascorbic acid degrades upon exposure to air, converting the oxygen to water. The redox reaction is accelerated by the presence of metal ions and light. It can be oxidized by one electron to a radical state or doubly oxidized to the stable form called dehydroascorbic acid."

Phenylmagnesium Bromide

"Phenylmagnesium bromide, with the simplified formula C₆H₅MgBr, is a magnesium-containing organometallic compound. It is so commonly used that it is commercially available as a solution in diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran (THF). Phenylmagnesium bromide is a Grignard reagent. It is often used as a synthetic equivalent for the phenyl "Ph^–" synthon."

"Although phenylmagnesium bromide is routinely represented as C₆H₅MgBr, the molecule is more complex. The compound invariably forms an adduct with two OR₂ ligands from the ether or THF solvent. Thus, the Mg is tetrahedral and obeys the octet rule. The Mg–O distances are 201 and 206 pm whereas the Mg–C and Mg–Br distances are 220 pm and 244 pm, respectively."

Triphenylene

"In chemistry, the organic compound triphenylene is a flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) consisting of four fused benzene rings. Triphenylene can be isolated from coal tar, but it is also made synthetically using benzyn chemistry. One molecule of triphenylene has delocalized 18-π-electron systems based on a planar structure. It has the molecular formula C₁₈H₁₂."

"Triphenylene is a fully benzenoid PAH, meaning its structure is composed only of full benzene rings interconnected by carbon-carbon single bonds. The three benzene rings can be drawn as the three outer rings, with the central ring formed by one face of each and the three carbon-carbon single bonds."

"Being a fully bezenoid PAH means that triphenylene is much more resonance stable than its isomers chrysene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[c]phenanthrene, andtetracene. This makes it much more difficult to hydrogenate to the saturated hydrocarbon."